Which Fuel Sources Have the Highest Carbon Footprint? A Life-Cycle Assessment

Which Fuel Sources Have the Highest Carbon Footprint? A Life-Cycle Assessment

By
Grace Smoot

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The term “carbon footprint” refers to our greenhouse gas emissions and how they affect our planet. Different fuel sources have different carbon footprints, with some of these values being higher than others. So we had to ask: Which fuel sources have the highest carbon footprint?

Diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation/jet fuel, and ethanol have the four highest carbon footprints of all fuel sources. They emit 22.44, 19.59, 18.3/21.1, and 18.92 pounds of CO2 per gallon, respectively. They directly contribute to climate change and have various negative environmental effects.

Keep reading to learn about the overall carbon footprints of these fuel sources, their carbon footprints throughout their life-cycles, and their environmental benefits and drawbacks. 

Here’s How We Assessed the Carbon Footprint of All Fuel Sources

The carbon footprint is one of the ways we measure the effects of human-induced global climate change. It primarily focuses on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with consumption, but also includes other emissions such as CH4, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons.

Carbon footprint: the amount of greenhouse gases and specifically carbon dioxide emitted by something (such as a person’s activities or a product’s manufacture and transport) during a given period

Merriam Webster

Basically, it is the amount of carbon emitted by an activity or an organization. This includes GHG emissions from fuel that we burn directly (e.g., heating a home, driving a car) and GHG emissions from manufacturing the products that we use (e.g., power plants, factories, and landfills). 

To understand the carbon footprint of all fuel sources, we must assess their life-cycle and each stage’s carbon footprint. This life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a method to evaluate the environmental impacts of products and materials. Over the years, companies have strategically used LCA to research and create more sustainable products. So, we had a look at the LCA for all of the fuel sources! (No worries, we’ll link back to each throughout this article.)

These 4 Fuel Sources Have the Highest Carbon Footprint

When discussing the carbon footprint of certain fuel sources, we must take into account carbon emissions across the fuel type’s building, extraction, transportation, and building back phases.

Type of FuelCarbon Footprint
Diesel fuel22.44 pounds (lb) CO2 per gallon
Gasoline19.59 lb CO2 per gallon
Aviation/jet fuelAviation gas: 18.3 lb CO2 per gallon
Jet fuel: 21.1 lb CO2 per gallon
Ethanol18.92 lb CO2 per gallon

Oil (including gasoline, diesel fuel, and aviation/jet fuel) is the world’s primary fuel source for transportation. The transportation sector was valued at $5,938.6 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach $7,500.8 billion in 2023. 

The top 10 largest oil producers in the world account for 72% (67 million barrels per day (mb/d)) of global oil global production, which is approximately 94 mb/d total.

Illustration of global oil consumption
Our World in Data: Oil Consumption

The world collectively emitted 12.36 billion tons (bt) of CO2 from oil in 2019. This high rate of emissions has instigated a push towards a cleaner-burning transportation fuel with fewer negative effects on the environment. 

Ethanol has emerged as a possible alternative transportation fuel with lower levels of GHG emissions. Global ethanol production in 2019 was 115 billion liters, and this number is expected to increase to 119 billion liters in 2025. 

Illustration of lobal biofuel production in 2019 and forecast to 2025
International Energy Agency: Global biofuel production in 2019 and forecast to 2025

The total carbon footprint of diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation/jet fuel, and ethanol would equal the carbon footprint from building + the carbon footprint from extracting + the carbon footprint from transportation + the carbon footprint from building back, for each fuel type.  

Diesel Fuel Has the Highest Carbon Footprint at 22.44 Pounds of CO2 Emitted Per Gallon

Diesel fuel, also known as diesel oil, is a combustible liquid used as fuel in diesel engines made from crude oil and other petroleum liquids. Crude oil was formed millions of years ago when plant and animal remains gradually built up on the earth’s surface and the ocean floor, mixing with sand, silt, and calcium carbonate. Under immense heat and pressure, some of these remains were converted into oil depending on the combination of organic matter present, how long it was buried, and pressure conditions. 

Diesel: a liquid obtained from petroleum, used as fuel in car engines, etc.”

Oxford Dictionary

When compared to gasoline, diesel is combustible, meaning that it uses compressed air in a cylinder to ignite the fuel rather than a spark (flammable). It produces more energy upon combustion, has a better fuel economy, and has fewer refining steps; however, it also produces greater quantities of certain air pollutants (sulfur, solid carbon particulates) and emits more CO2 per unit than gasoline does. 

On a life-cycle basis, diesel fuel emits 22.44 lbs (10,180g) CO2 per gallon. Which is the highest carbon footprint of all fuel sources – and higher than all the other ones. One gallon of diesel weighs approximately 7 pounds, but for every pound of diesel that is burned, over 3 times that amount is released as CO2.

Here are the life-cycle stages of diesel fuel and each stage’s carbon footprint:

  • Building of diesel: CO2 emissions from building the components of the petroleum refinery
  • Extracting of diesel: CO2 emissions from drilling/fracking, reforming, treating, and blending crude oil 
  • Transportation of diesel: CO2 emissions from transporting diesel by barges, tankers, pipelines, trucks, and railroads across distances
  • Building back of diesel: CO2 emissions from plugging wells and decommissioning power plants; CH4 seepage from unplugged wells
Related: Check out the full article about diesel fuel here: What Is the Carbon Footprint of Diesel Fuel? A Life-Cycle Assessment

Because diesel fuel is still a major global fuel source for transportation, it is important to understand what its carbon footprint is and how its carbon emissions affect the global climate change process.

Gasoline Has the Second-Highest Carbon Footprint at 19.59 Pounds of CO2 Emitted Per Gallon

Gasoline is a fuel used mainly in engines that are made from crude oil and other petroleum liquids. Crude oil was formed millions of years ago when plant and animal remains gradually built up on the earth’s surface and the ocean floor, mixing with sand, silt, and calcium carbonate. Under immense heat and pressure, some of these remains were converted into oil depending on the combination of organic matter present, how long it was buried, and pressure conditions. 

Gasoline: a type of heavy oil used as a fuel instead of petrol”

Oxford Dictionary

Petroleum refineries produce unfinished gasoline which is then blended with other liquids to produce the finished motor gasoline that is used in today’s vehicles. The three main grades of gasoline are regular, midgrade, and premium which refer to the octane rating, a measure of fuel stability. Basically, the higher the octane rating, the more stable the fuel. Regular, midgrade, and premium have octane ratings of 87, 89-90, and 91-94, respectively. 

On a life-cycle basis, gasoline emits 19.59 lbs (8,887g) of CO2 per gallon, which is the second-highest out of all of the fuel sources. One gallon of gasoline weighs 6.3 pounds, but for every pound of gasoline that is burned, more than 3 times that amount is released as CO2.

Here are the life-cycle stages of gasoline and each stage’s carbon footprint:

  • Building of gasoline: CO2 emissions from building the components of the petroleum refinery
  • Extracting of gasoline: CO2 emissions from drilling/fracking, reforming, treating, and blending crude oil 
  • Transportation of gasoline: CO2 emissions from transporting gasoline by barges, tankers, pipelines, trucks, and railroads across distances
  • Building back of gasoline: CO2 emissions from plugging wells and decommissioning power plants; CH4 seepage from unplugged wells
Related: Check out the full article about gasoline here: What Is the Carbon Footprint of Gasoline? A Life-Cycle Assessment

Gasoline represented 44% of total petroleum consumption in the US alone in 2019. Because gasoline is a major global fuel source, it is important to understand what its carbon footprint is and how its carbon emissions affect the global climate change process.

Aviation/Jet Fuel Has the Third-Highest Carbon Footprint at 18.3 and 21.1 Pounds of CO2 Emitted Per Gallon

Aviation/jet fuel is a petroleum-based fuel used to power aircrafts. The two main aviation/jet fuel types are aviation gasoline (AVGAS) and jet fuel. AVGAS is used in piston-engine aircrafts which fly via rotation of the thrust-generating propellers. It comes in two forms, AVGAS 100 and AVGAS 100LL. Jet fuel is used in turbine-jet engines which fly via the thrust of expelled air. It is a colorless, kerosene-based fuel that comes in two forms, Jet A and Jet A1.

Jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel: a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines

Wikipedia

On a life-cycle basis, AVGAS emits 18.3 lbs (8,309g) and jet fuel emits 21.1 lbs (9,570g) of CO2 per gallon, which is the third-highest out of all of the fuel sources. 1 lb of jet fuel produces 6.97 lb (3.16 kg) of CO2 upon combustion.

Here are the life-cycle stages of aviation/jet fuel and each stage’s carbon footprint:

  • Building of aviation/jet fuel: CO2 emissions from building the components of the petroleum refinery
  • Extracting of aviation/jet fuel: CO2 emissions from drilling/fracking, reforming, treating, and blending crude oil 
  • Transportation of aviation/jet fuel: CO2 emissions from transporting aviation/jet fuel by barges, tankers, pipelines, trucks, and railroads across distances
  • Building back of aviation/jet fuel: CO2 emissions from plugging wells and decommissioning power plants; CH4 seepage from unplugged wells
Related: Check out the full article about aviation/jet fuel here: What Is the Carbon Footprint of Aviation/Jet Fuel? A Life-Cycle Assessment

Aviation itself is an approximate $471.8 billion industry, with roughly 2.9 million people flying per day. The market for aviation/jet fuel is expected to increase from $178.560 billion in 2019 to $253.261 billion in 2025, so it is important to understand what its carbon footprint is. And how its carbon emissions affect the global climate change process.

Ethanol Has the Fourth-Highest Carbon Footprint at 18.92 Pounds of CO2 Emitted Per Gallon

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and EtOH, is a clear and colorless liquid that can be used as a vehicle fuel in gasoline-powered vehicles. It is a subset of biofuels (ethanol and biodiesel), which is made from biomass. Biomass is renewable organic material from plants and animals that can be used to produce a wide range of products including energy, everyday products that contain plastics, and fuel. Ethanol is most commonly made from corn but can also be made from crop residues and wood (cellulosic biomass).

Ethanol: a colorless volatile flammable liquid C2H5OH that is the intoxicating agent in liquors and is also used as a solvent and in fuel”

Merriam-Webster Dictionary

Like gasoline, ethanol is used in engines that use a spark to ignite the fuel. Ethanol can be blended with gasoline in any percentage up to 83% to produce finished ethanol fuel. Pure ethanol is referred to as E100, and E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline) is the most common blend. Other common forms of ethanol include E15 and E85. 

On a life-cycle basis, ethanol emits 18.92 lbs (8,595g) of CO2 per gallon, which is the fourth-highest out of all of the fuel sources. The average ethanol (E85) emission rates for all vehicle models are 22% lower compared to gasoline.

Here are the life-cycle stages of ethanol and each stage’s carbon footprint:

  • Building of ethanol: CO2 emissions from building the components of the ethanol production facility
  • Extracting of ethanol: CO2 emissions from the milling and fermentation processes 
  • Transportation of ethanol: CO2 emissions from transporting ethanol by barges, tankers, pipelines, trucks, and railroads across distances
  • Building back of ethanol: CO2 emissions from utilizing construction equipment to demolish the buildings and construct new buildings in the old ethanol plant’s place
Related: Check out the full article about ethanol here: What Is the Carbon Footprint of Ethanol? A Life-Cycle Assessment

The market for ethanol is expected to increase from $93.7 billion in 2020 to $155.6 billion by 2030. So it is important to understand what its carbon footprint is. And how its carbon emissions affect the global climate change process.

What Roles Do The Fuel Sources With the Highest Carbon Footprint Play in Combating/ Contributing to Climate Change

Climate change is arguably the most severe, long-term, global impact of fossil fuel combustion. The carbon found in these 4 fuel sources reacts with oxygen in the air to produce CO2. This warms the earth by acting as a heating blanket, and a warmer earth comes with a host of negative side effects. 

Climate Change: changes in the world’s weather, in particular the fact that it is believed to be getting warmer as a result of human activity increasing the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere”

Cambridge Dictionary

Every year, approximately 36 bt of CO2 are emitted from burning fossil fuels. 12 bt (34%) of this comes from oil. 

CO2 emissions from diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation/jet fuel, and ethanol contribute to climate change in the following ways:

  • Melting of sea ice: Since 1979 arctic sea ice has declined by 30%. Sea ice plays a major role in regulating the earth’s climate by reflecting sunlight into space and providing habitat for animal species. If all of the glaciers on Earth melted, sea levels would rise by approximately 70 feet, effectively flooding out every coastal city on the planet. 
  • Changing precipitation patterns: Extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes, floods, droughts) are becoming more common and more intense. Storm-affected areas will experience increased precipitation and flooding whereas areas located further from storm tracks will experience decreased precipitation and droughts.
  • Ocean acidification: The ocean absorbs 30% of the CO2 released into the atmosphere, which decreases the pH (increases the acidity) of the ocean. In the past 200 years, the pH of oceans has decreased by 0.1 pH units, which translates to a 30% increase in acidity. Aquatic life unable to adjust to this rapid acidification will die off. A prime example of this is coral bleaching, where coral expel the algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues as a result of changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. 

Experts claim that to avoid a future plagued by rising sea levels, acidified oceans, loss of biodiversity, more frequent and severe weather events, and other environmental disasters brought on by the hotter temperatures, we must limit global warming to 1.5C by 2040

The more we reduce CO2 emissions, the more we slow the rate of temperature rise, sea-level rise, ice melting, and ocean acidification. When these rates are slowed, the earth’s biodiversity does not have to struggle to adapt to temperature and pH changes. People will not be displaced due to the flooding of coastal areas. And icebergs will continue to provide climate regulation. 

How Environmentally Friendly Are The Fuel Sources With the Highest Carbon Footprint

Oil is still our primary transportation source, and biomass is often referred to as a better option than coal, but their combustion still produces a significant amount of CO2 emissions annually which contributes to global climate change.

“Environmentally friendly: (of products) not harming the environment.”

Cambridge Dictionary

Diesel fuel, gasoline, and aviation/jet fuel are considered dirty fuels because of their high rate of CO2 emissions, toxic heavy metals, and other chemicals that contribute to global climate change. Ethanol comes with a lower carbon footprint but depending on the source can still be environmentally detrimental. Because of this, the environmental benefits are scarce, and the environmental drawbacks are abundant. 

What Are Environmental Drawbacks of The Fuel Sources With the Highest Carbon Footprint

Because diesel fuel, gasoline, and aviation/jet fuel are derived from oil, they share a host of fossil-fuel related environmental drawbacks:

  • Oil spills: Small oil spills occur when refueling a ship, and large oil spills occur when pipelines break, oil tankers sink, or drilling operations go wrong. Oil spills, in general, cause serious environmental harm by contaminating water and soil, causing explosions and fires, harming wildlife, and contaminating seafood. When oil enters the environment it is difficult and expensive to remediate. 
  • Fracking: Large amounts of water and potentially hazardous chemicals are required when fracking, which can decrease water availability for people and aquatic life and can result in leaks and spills of fracking fluids. Fracking also produces large amounts of wastewater which require treatment before disposal, and injecting it back underground can cause earthquakes that are large enough to be felt.
  • Air pollution: Oil combustion releases carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides, particulate matter (PM), unburned hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and CO2 into the environment which can cause respiratory problems and even premature death. VOCs are a group of chemicals that lead to the formation of ground-level ozone (smog). 

There is also a drawback unique to aviation/jet fuel:

  • Contrail formations: 30% of jet fuel exhaust is water vapor. By itself, water vapor has a minimal impact on global warming, but its presence in the exhaust plume causes water to freeze into ice. The ice crystals draw water vapor from the atmosphere and expand to form contrail-induced cirrus clouds. The cirrus clouds trap infrared radiation, causing a warming impact 3x that of CO2. The clouds themselves have a short lifespan, but the thousands of flights per day coupled with their warming influence make them a significant contributor to aviation-induced global warming. 

And although ethanol is not derived from oil, it still comes with environmental drawbacks. The main drawback of ethanol is the amount of land needed to grow the biomass material. Some claim that ethanol is carbon neutral because the plants that are the source of the ethanol absorb CO2 as they grow, thereby offsetting the CO2 released when ethanol is burned. But in some parts of the world, large swaths of forests have been cleared and burned to plans needed to make ethanol. Dedicating land for the sole purpose of biofuel production leads to deforestation, which in turn expedites global climate change. 

Our forests absorb 2.6 billion tons of CO2 every year. The main threat to them is deforestation, which occurs at roughly 10 million hectares (~ 25 million acres) per year. The world has lost more than 1/3 of its forest since the last ice age, which occurred about 2.6 million years ago. Trees combat climate change, purify the air, provide housing for millions of plant and animal species, protect against floods and water pollution, and improve mental health. Chopping these trees to make space for crops has a devastating effect on the environment because it reduces the number of trees that can capture our CO2 emissions. Protecting forest habitats increases carbon sequestration and decreases the effects of global climate change. 

Overall, diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation/jet fuel, and ethanol combustion add to the total level of CO2 in our atmosphere and expedite global warming. 

  • Atmospheric CO2: Levels of CO2 in our atmosphere have increased as a result of human emissions since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in 1750. Emissions increased steadily to 5 bt per year in the mid-20th century before increasing exponentially to more than 35 bt per year at the end of the 20th century. The global average amount of CO2 in the atmosphere was about 280 parts per million (ppm) in 1750 but today registers at over 400 ppm. By the end of the 21st century, this number is expected to exceed 900 ppm. Burning fossil fuels adds to this total, which in turn amplifies the greenhouse effect and causes global warming. 
  • Global warming: This phenomenon occurs when CO2 and other air pollutants absorb sunlight and solar radiation in the atmosphere, trapping the heat and acting as an insulator for the planet. Since the Industrial Revolution, Earth’s temperature has risen a little more than 1 degree Celsius (C), or 2 degrees Fahrenheit (F). Between 1880-1980 the global temperature rose by 0.07C every 10 years. This rate has more than doubled since 1981, with a current global annual temperature rise of 0.18C, or 0.32F, for every 10 years. Experts claim that to avoid a future plagued by rising sea levels, acidified oceans, loss of biodiversity, more frequent and severe weather events, and other environmental disasters brought on by the hotter temperatures, we must limit global warming to 1.5C by 2040

The easiest way to mitigate the environmental impact of diesel fuel, gasoline, and aviation/jet fuel is simply to simply not rely on them in the first place. Their combustion releases toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and CO2, while also directly contributing to global warming. And although ethanol burns cleaner than oil-derived fuels, it still carries the environmental threat of deforestation.

What Are Environmental “Benefits” of the Fuel Sources With the Highest Carbon Footprint

Although diesel fuel, gasoline, and aviation/jet fuel do not benefit the environment, there are ways to possibly mitigate their environmental impact. Various methods to do so include:

  • Improved technology: Satellites, GPS, and remote sensing technology can detect oil reserves underground which negates the need to drill multiple exploratory wells.
  • Efficient drilling methods: Horizontal and directional drilling allow a single well to produce oil from a much larger area, reducing the overall number of wells needed. 
  • Controlling CH4 leaks: Detecting, fixing, and repairing CH4 leaks from well-pads, processing plants, compressor stations, and large distribution facilities is crucial. Doing this can reduce CH4 output by 1.70-1.80 million metric tons per year. Plugging abandoned oil wells also prevents the seepage of methane into the atmosphere. 
  • Recycle water and use efficient production practices: Fracking uses a large amount of water, so recycling water and avoiding utilizing freshwater sources can reduce water requirements. Constructing wells properly and maintaining them after drilling is complete is crucial for efficiency. 
  • Implement practices that reduce the risk of induced seismicity: Fracking can cause seismic activity that leads to earthquakes. Avoiding water injection into active fault lines, limiting injection rates, installing seismic monitors, establishing a protocol for when seismic activity is induced, and abandoning wells with seismic activity are all ways to mitigate this threat. 
  • Reduce sulfur levels: In the past, diesel contained high levels of sulfur, which can combine with NOx in our atmosphere and cause acid rain. European and United States’ emission standards and taxes on petroleum refineries have forced them to reduce the amount of sulfur in diesel.

Following certain protocols and environmental mitigation practices for oil can help reduce negative environmental effects of diesel fuel, gasoline, and aviation/jet fuel. But overall, the most effective way to reduce negative environmental effects is to use an alternative fuel source. These include:

  1. Electricity: Vehicles using electricity as fuel do not release CO2, but the power plants that produce the electricity may still be responsible for some emissions.
  2. Hydrogen: An electric motor is powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, where hydrogen reacts with oxygen across an electrochemical cell similar to that of a battery to produce electricity, water, and small amounts of heat
  1. Natural gas (NG): NG in the form of compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be used as fuel in cars. Large-scale manufacturing of NG vehicles is not currently available, but gasoline and diesel vehicles can be retrofitted for CNG.
  1. Propane: Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is used in fleet operations including buses, shuttles, and police vehicles. 
  1. Alcohols (ethanol, methanol, and butanol): Certain alcohols can be used as vehicle fuel because they have physical and combustion properties that are similar to gasoline.
  1. Vegetable and waste-derived oils: Vegetable oils, yellow grease, used cooking oils, or animal fats are converted into biodiesel via the process of transesterification.

On the flip side, because ethanol is not derived from oil it still comes with some environmental benefits:

  1. Climate change mitigation: In 2020, the use of ethanol in gasoline reduced CO2 emissions from the transportation industry by 47.3 million metric tons. This is the equivalent of removing 10.1 million cars from the road for 1 year or negating the emissions from 12 coal-fired power plants for a year!
  1. Improves air quality: Blending ethanol into gasoline reduces tailpipe emissions from several pollutants including CO, hydrocarbons, air toxics (benzene), and particulate matter. These can reduce oxygen delivery to bodily organs, contribute to harmful ozone formation, and cause cancer and reproductive/birth defects.

Using sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) instead of conventional jet fuel is the best way to make aviation/jet fuel more environmentally friendly. SAF is a biofuel made from biomass. SAF burns cleaner in aircrafts, has a smaller carbon footprint, and emits less toxic chemicals than jet fuel. Because SAF is derived from biomass, deforestation is a drawback that must be accounted for and properly managed.

Final Thoughts

Diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation/jet fuel, and ethanol have the four highest carbon footprints across their building, extracting, transportation, and building back phases compared to all other fuel sources. They contribute directly to global warming and have various other environmental drawbacks. Our atmosphere and Earth’s biota would all benefit if we reduce our consumption of these four fuel sources and instead switch to alternative fuels. 

Carbon emissions have devastating effects on the environment. Reducing our carbon footprint is important because it mitigates the effects of climate change, which has a positive cascade effect on public health and plant and animal diversity. In addition, this boosts the global economy and leads to innovative, more environmentally-friendly solutions.

Stay impactful,

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